The impact of victimization Goal: All victim assistance providers and policy makers should understand the impact of victimization in order to promote understanding of the need for assistance. Objectives: For victim assistance providers and others who work with or on behalf of victims to understand the range of victims’ reactions that are universal and to understand that these reactions may be expressed in ways that reflect a particular culture. A. The physical and financial impact of victimization At the time of a crime, or upon discovering that a crime has occurred, victims are likely to experience a number of physical reactions to the event. These may include an increase in the adrenalin in the body, increased heart rate, hyperventilation, shaking, tears, numbness, a feeling of being frozen or experiencing events in slow motion, dryness of the mouth, enhancement of particular senses, such as smell, and a “fight or flight” response. It is common for people to lose control over their bowel movements. Some of these physical reactions may not occur until after the danger has passed. They may recur at a later stage when the memory of the crime returns. After the crime, victims may suffer a range of physical effects, including insomnia, appetite disturbance, lethargy, headaches, muscle tension, nausea and decreased libido. Such reactions may persist for some time after the crime has occurred. Physical injuries resulting from victimization may not always be immediately apparent. This may be particularly true in cases of domestic violence where the injuries occur on parts of the body that are normally clothed. Facial injuries are by far the most frequent in other forms of assault. Victims may suffer a range of physical damage, including abrasions and bruises, broken nose, cheekbone or jawbone and damage to or loss of teeth. Other injuries will be associated with assaults involving knives or firearms. Physical injuries may be a permanent effect of crime and there is evidence that this has a negative effect on long-term psychological recovery, since the physical scars serve as a constant reminder of the crime. Cultural, gender and occupational factors may affect the individual’s reaction to permanent scarring or disability, as will the reaction of others.
(b) Victim surveys Police report data alone will not suffice for the assessment: data from 52 countries show reporting rates by victims to be 30-40 per cent overall, with reporting rates for crimes such as sexual assault to be as low as 10 per cent. The lowest reporting rates are found in the least developed nations. Victimization surveysare the best way to determine its incidence and prevalence, but they are costly to do properly and keep updated. Moreover, they are unlikely to fully capture certain crimes such as spouse assault, child abuse, elder abuse and abuse ofpower, which are crimes that often go unreported. For such crimes, the “dark figure” of unknown victimizations will remain large. Nonetheless, it is crucial to conduct victimization surveys of these special groups so that the victim assistance response is appropriate in size and character. These surveys may also overlook the effect of sudden, isolated cases of mass violence, such as terrorist attacks, massacres or hijackings. Having obtained the best possibleestimates of victimization, the next step will be to determine accurately the financial, medical, psychological and other costs of victimization to the victims. Developed countries have various data systems that help in determining levels of victimization (at least for individuals). However, research suggests that even these data systems capture only a fraction of the full costs of crime to its victims. Therefore, any estimates of shortfall are likely to underestimate the level of victim needs in comparison to the assistance available, unless the costs to victims are fully taken into account. For example, a study by the Bureau of Justice Statistics at the United States Department of Justice found that in 1992, American crime victims lost $17.6 billion in direct costs, which included losses from property theft or damage, cash losses, medical expenses and pay lost as a result of injury or activities related to the crime. For victims of abuse of power, especially Chapter II. Victim assistance programmes 14 in areas devastated by war, the costs are greatly magnified and must necessarily include the costs to the community and society in restoring the often massive damage to a country’s infrastructure. The provision of assistance to individual victims will usually include formal victim services and compensation and/or restitution from both governmental and non-governmental sources. In the case of homicide and certain other crimes, assistance may be provided to the “co-victim”, such as the families of the victims themselves. Added to this—and typically more utilized by the victim—are informal sources ofassistance such as family, neighbours, friends and others. Employers sometimes offer assistance. Public and private insurance plans may be available to assist with medical and psychiatric needs, as well as property losses, and to provide counsel through legal procedures and should therefore be included if they meet the needs of victims, even if that is not their primary focus. If data on the incidence and prevalence of victimization of individuals and of its costs are weak in general, they are even weaker when it comes to crimes against business and against collective groups. Few countries have ongoing and systematic ways of capturing these data. The envisaged international survey of business victimization will be a pioneering effort to remedy this problem. Establishing the cause of business losses can be problematic in many cases, for example, inventory “shrinkage”, which can result from shoplifting, employee theft, fraudulent billing or poor record-keeping.But whatever the cause, business failure due to crime will harm the community through loss of a source of employment and tax revenue, leading to “whole community harm” that extends beyond the individual business establishment. Sources of assistance to victimizedbusinesses may include government loans and subsidies, as well as public and private insurance. Individuals who are victimized inconnection with their employment or, for example, through forms of large-scale fraud may be entitled to special programmes of assistance provided by the Government or by the employer. With reference to collective victims of abuse of power, such entities as the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees and the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies have assessment mechanisms that are part of their response programmes.